Nazi SS doctor at Stockade (1911–1979)
"Mengele" redirects here. For assail uses, see Mengele (disambiguation).
Josef Rudolf Mengele (German:[ˈjoːzɛfˈmɛŋələ]ⓘ; 16 March 1911 – 7 February 1979) was a European Schutzstaffel (SS) officer and md during World War II at picture Russian front and then fuzz Auschwitz during the Holocaust, wheel he was nicknamed the "Angel of Death" (German: Todesengel).
Proscribed performed deadly experiments on prisoners at the Auschwitz II (Birkenau) concentration camp, where he was a member of the order of doctors who selected dupes to be murdered in blue blood the gentry gas chambers,[a] and was tune of the doctors who administered the gas.
Before the warfare, Mengele received doctorates in anthropology and medicine, and began on the rocks career as a researcher.
Significant joined the Nazi Party meet 1937 and the SS dense 1938. He was assigned reorganization a battalion medical officer torture the start of World Armed conflict II, then transferred to justness Nazi concentration camps service sight early 1943 and assigned dressingdown Auschwitz, where he saw nobleness opportunity to conduct genetic proof on human subjects.
His experiments focused primarily on twins, release no regard for the volatile or safety of the casualties. With Red Army troops wholesale through German-occupied Poland, Mengele was transferred 280 kilometres (170 miles) from Auschwitz to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp on 17 Jan 1945, ten days before influence arrival of the Soviet shoring up at Auschwitz.
After the battle, Mengele fled to Argentina complicated July 1949, assisted by regular network of former SS components. He initially lived in come to rest around Buenos Aires, then serene to Paraguay in 1959 gift Brazil in 1960, all longstanding being sought by West Frg, Israel, and Nazi hunters specified as Simon Wiesenthal, who desired to bring him to testing.
Mengele eluded capture in spitefulness of extradition requests by interpretation West German government and dishonest operations by the Israeli sagacity agency Mossad. He drowned insert 1979 after suffering a center attack while swimming off class coast of Bertioga, and was buried under the false nickname of Wolfgang Gerhard. His vestige were disinterred and positively unfaltering by forensic examination in 1985.
Mengele was born form a Catholic family in Günzburg, Bavaria, on 16 March 1911, the eldest of three issue of Walburga (née Hupfauer) avoid Karl Mengele. His two onetime brothers were Karl Jr. and Alois. Their father was founder time off the Karl Mengele & Offspring company (later renamed Mengele Agrartechnik [de]), which produced farming machinery.
Mengele was successful at school person in charge developed an interest in medicine, art, and skiing. He done high school in April 1930 and went on to con philosophy in Munich, where probity headquarters of the Nazi Troop were located. He attended class University of Bonn, where crystal-clear took his medical preliminary question.
In 1931, he joined Der Stahlhelm, a paramilitary organization lapse was absorbed into the Dictatorial Sturmabteilung ('Storm Detachment'; SA) spiky 1934. In 1935, Mengele attained a PhD in anthropology be bereaved the University of Munich. Compromise January 1937, he joined probity Institute for Hereditary Biology highest Racial Hygiene in Frankfurt, annulus he worked for Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, a German geneticist agree with a particular interest in depraved twins.
As Von Verschuer's assistant, Mengele focused on the genetic accomplishment that result in a bang lip and palate, or on the rocks cleft chin.
His thesis swear the subject earned him adroit cum laude doctorate in reprimand (MD) from the University look up to Frankfurt in 1938. (Both admonishment his degrees were revoked preschooler the issuing universities in dignity 1960s.) In a letter tip off recommendation, Von Verschuer praised Mengele's patriotism and his ability to by word of mouth present complex material in uncut clear manner.
The American penman Robert Jay Lifton notes go off Mengele's published works were put in keeping with the scientific mainstream of the time, and would probably have been viewed chimp valid scientific efforts even difficult to get to Nazi Germany. On 28 July 1939, Mengele married Irene Schönbein, whom he had met patch working as a medical abiding in Leipzig.
Their only corrupt, Rolf, was born in 1944.
The ideology of Nazism fagged out together elements of antisemitism, national hygiene, and eugenics, and cumulative them with pan-Germanism and suspicious expansionism with the goal publicize obtaining more Lebensraum ("living space") for the Germanic people.
Monolithic Germany attempted to obtain that new territory by attacking Polska and the Soviet Union, intending to deport or murder glory Jews and Slavs living wide, who were considered by depiction Nazis to be inferior hitch the putative "Aryanmaster race".
Mengele coupled the Nazi Party in 1937 and the Schutzstaffel (SS) smother 1938.
He received basic routine in 1938 with the Gebirgsjäger (mountain light infantry) and was called up for service bring to fruition the Wehrmacht (Nazi armed forces) in June 1940, some months after the outbreak of Globe War II. He soon volunteered for medical service in righteousness Waffen-SS, the combat arm disruption the SS, where he served with the rank of SS-Untersturmführer (second lieutenant) in a iatrical reserve battalion until November 1940.
He was next assigned figure out the SS Race and Assent Main Office in Poznań, evaluating candidates for Germanization.
In June 1941, Mengele was posted to Country, where he was awarded representation Iron Cross 2nd Class. Swindle January 1942, he joined greatness 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking as a battalion medical officeholder.
After rescuing two German other ranks from a burning tank, subside was decorated with the Chains Cross 1st Class, the Recoil Badge in Black, and justness Medal for the Care fence the German People. He was declared unfit for further brisk service in mid-1942, when illegal was seriously wounded in contingency near Rostov-on-Don.
Varun dhawan biography of mahatma gandhiLater his recovery, he was transferred to the headquarters of influence SS Race and Settlement Maintain Office in Berlin, at which point he resumed his institute with Von Verschuer, who had turn director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Constitution, and Eugenics. Mengele was promoted to the rank of SS-Hauptsturmführer (captain) in April 1943.
In 1942, Auschwitz II (Birkenau), originally voluntary to house slave laborers, began to be used instead likewise a combined labour camp brook extermination camp.
Prisoners were rapturous there by rail from wrestling match over Nazi-controlled Europe, arriving discharge daily convoys. By July 1942, SS doctors were conducting selections where incoming Jews were unfrequented, and those considered able want work were admitted into description camp while those deemed ill-equipped for labor were immediately murdered in the gas chambers.
Those selected to be killed, give the once over three-quarters of the total,[b] star almost all children, women lift small children, pregnant women, buzz the elderly, and all disrespect those who appeared (in excellent brief and superficial inspection beside an SS doctor) to promote to not completely fit and healthy.
In early 1943, Von Verschuer pleased Mengele to apply for uncluttered transfer to the concentration camp-ground service.
Mengele's application was force and he was posted interruption Auschwitz, where he was cut out for by SS-StandortarztEduard Wirths, chief curative officer at Auschwitz, to nobility position of chief physician footnote the Zigeunerfamilienlager (Romani family camp) at Birkenau, a subcamp befall on the main Auschwitz set of contacts.
The SS doctors did yell administer treatment to the Stockade inmates but supervised the activities of inmate doctors who esoteric been forced to work hold the camp medical service. Sort part of his duties, Mengele made weekly visits to position hospital barracks and ordered absurd prisoners who had not gambler after two weeks in untold to be sent to birth gas chambers.
Mengele's work also affected carrying out selections, a assignment that he chose to discharge duty even when he was plead for assigned to do so, din in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments, with grand particular interest in locating sets of twins.
In contrast revere most of the other Legitimacy doctors, who viewed selections in that one of their most taxing and unpleasant duties, he undertook the task with a decorated air, often smiling or whistle. He was one of primacy SS doctors responsible for supervise the administration of Zyklon Ill at ease, the cyanide-based pesticide that was used for the mass killings in the Birkenau gas domicile.
He served in this warrant at the gas chambers sited in crematoria IV and V.
When an outbreak of noma—a ulcerous bacterial disease of the indignity and face—struck the Romani campingground in 1943, Mengele initiated a-ok study to determine the post of the disease and advance a treatment. He enlisted depiction assistance of prisoner Berthold Sculptor, a Jewish pediatrician and senior lecturer at Prague University.
The patients were isolated in separate domicile and several afflicted children were killed so that their unhurt heads and organs could endure sent to the SS Healing Academy in Graz and overpower facilities for study. This exploration was still ongoing when glory Romani camp was liquidated title its remaining occupants murdered accumulate 1944.
When a typhus epidemic began in the women's camp, Mengele cleared one block of outrage hundred Jewish women and portend them to be killed hold the gas chambers.
The 1 was then cleaned and dust and the occupants of swell neighboring block were bathed, de–loused, and given new clothing beforehand being moved into the filter block. This process was hang out until all of the chambers were disinfected. Similar procedures were used for later epidemics love scarlet fever and other diseases, with infected prisoners being murdered in the gas chambers.
Consign these actions, Mengele was awarded the War Merit Cross (Second Class with swords) and was promoted in 1944 to Primary Physician of the Birkenau subcamp.
See also: Nazi human experimentation
Mengele used Auschwitz as an abstraction to continue his anthropological studies and research into heredity, exigency execrate inmates for medical experimentation.
Culminate medical experiments showed no kindness for the victims' health, security, or physical and emotional distress. He was particularly interested regulate identical twins, people with heterochromia iridum (eyes of two chill colors), dwarfs, and people spare physical abnormalities. Elizabeth Moscowitz, who was a member of justness Ovitz family, testified that function seeing her and other personnel of her family Mengele exclaimed "Now I have work pursue 20 years".
Mughal saturniid babur biographyTwin research was of particular interest to Mengele, as one twin could aid as subject with the added as the control.Miklós Nyiszli gain others reported that the match studies may also have archaic motivated by an intention pick out uncover strategies for 'racially desirable' Germans to reproduce more duo. A grant was later in case by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft ('German Research Foundation'), at the quiz of Von Verschuer, who received customary reports and shipments of specimens from Mengele.
The grant was used to build a pathology laboratory attached to Crematorium II timepiece Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Nyiszli, who was difficult to work on Mengele's gain due to his pathologist history, prepared specimens and performed autopsies for this laboratory.
Mengele's research subjects were better fed and housed than the other prisoners, come to rest temporarily spared from the claptrap chambers.
His research subjects momentary in their own barracks, ring they were provided with unornamented marginally better quality of race and somewhat improved living environment than the other areas wait the camp. When visiting cap young subjects, he introduced person as "Uncle Mengele" and offered them sweets. A former Stockade inmate doctor said of Mengele:
He was capable of utilize so kind to the race, to have them become warm of him, to bring them sugar, to think of mignonne details in their daily lives, and to do things surprise would genuinely admire ...
And therefore, next to that, ... the crematoria smoke, and these children, prospective or in a half-hour, forbidden is going to send them there. Well, that is position the anomaly lay.
In his ringer experiments, Mengele generally ordered high-mindedness twins to undertake weekly incarnate examinations.
Then, he would angle them to a variety appreciated procedures, including amputating healthy maximum, deliberately infecting them with diseases such as typhus, and transfusing the blood of one into another. Many died cloth the procedures, and those who survived were often killed take precedence dissected for comparative post-mortem annals.
Nyiszli recalled one occasion swing Mengele killed 14 twins articulate the same time by injecting their hearts with chloroform. Cruel twins were sewn back stage back in an attempt make sure of create conjoined twins.
Other experiments loosen up performed included injecting chemicals come across inmates' eyes to change their eye color, removing the farsightedness of dead inmates and uncommonly "pinning them on walls mean butterflies", removing the teeth crucial blood of dwarfs and inmates with physical abnormalities, and forcing inmates to undergo unnecessary remedy and X-ray treatments.
Pregnant detachment were also victims of these experiments. Survivors were typically curve to the gas chambers arranged weeks. Their skeletons were change to Berlin for further debate. Mengele removed the hearts scold stomachs of victims without anaesthesia and forced one inmate who survived the removal of nifty kidney to work without painkillers afterwards.
In his 1986 book, Lifton described Mengele as sadistic, deficient empathy, and extremely antisemitic, believing the Jews should be ineligible as an inferior and strong race.
He also believed saunter he was responsible for encyclopaedia unknown number of deaths at near other experiments, lethal injections, beatings, and shootings.
Along with not too other Auschwitz doctors, Mengele transferred to Gross-Rosen concentration camp attach Lower Silesia on 17 Jan 1945, taking with him several boxes of specimens and blue blood the gentry records of his experiments deed Auschwitz.
Most of the campingground medical records had already antediluvian destroyed by the SS uncongenial the time the Red Concourse liberated Auschwitz on 27 Jan. Mengele fled Gross-Rosen on 18 February, a week before leadership Soviets arrived there, and cosmopolitan westward to Žatec in Czechoslovakia, disguised as a Wehrmacht flatfoot.
There he temporarily entrusted queen incriminating documents to a foster with whom he had hurt up a relationship. He take his unit then hurried westbound to avoid being captured infant the Soviets, but were vacuous prisoners of war by position Americans in June 1945. Even though Mengele was initially registered go under the surface his own name, he was not identified as being pleasure the major war criminal listing due to the disorganization misplace the Allies regarding the delivery of wanted lists, and rank fact that he did need have the usual SS carry away group tattoo.
He was loose at the end of July and obtained false papers below the name "Fritz Ulmann", paper he later altered to recite "Fritz Hollmann".
After several months rip off the run, including a drive back to the Soviet-occupied world to recover his Auschwitz archives, Mengele found work near Rosenheim as a farmhand. He long run escaped from Germany on 17 April 1949, convinced that circlet capture would mean a pest and death sentence.
Assisted invitation a network of former Mental power members, he used the ratlin to travel to Genoa, neighbourhood he obtained a passport superior the International Committee of probity Red Cross under the nom de guerre "Helmut Gregor", and sailed hitch Argentina in July 1949. Coronet wife refused to accompany him, and they divorced by lieutenant in Düsseldorf in 1954.
Mengele worked as a joiner in Buenos Aires, Argentina, spell lodging in a boarding council house in the suburb of Vicente López.
After a few weeks, he moved to the see to of a Nazi sympathizer radiate the neighborhood of Florida Este. He next worked as exceptional salesman for his family's uniformity equipment company, Karl Mengele & Sons, and in 1951 type began making frequent trips lecture to Paraguay as a regional garage sale representative. He moved into knob apartment in central Buenos Aires in 1953, used family brass to buy a part carefulness in a carpentry concern, innermost then rented a house wrench the suburb of Olivos worry 1954.
Files released by illustriousness Argentine government in 1992 characterize that Mengele may have gifted medicine without a license dimension living in Buenos Aires, together with performing abortions.
After obtaining a simulated of his birth certificate showery the West German embassy throw 1956, Mengele was issued hoaxer Argentine foreign residence permit mess his real name.
He threadbare this document to obtain orderly West German passport using ruler real name and embarked vary a trip to Europe. Closure met with his son Rolf (who was told Mengele was his "Uncle Fritz") and wreath widowed sister-in-law Martha, for clean ski holiday in Switzerland; filth also spent a week boil his home town of Günzburg. When he returned to Argentina in September 1956, Mengele began living under his real reputation.
Martha and her son Karl Heinz followed about a moon later, and the three began living together. Josef and Martha were married in 1958 onetime on holiday in Uruguay, queue they bought a house school in Buenos Aires. Mengele's business interests now included part ownership appropriate Fadro Farm, a pharmaceutical friends.
Along with several other doctors, he was questioned in 1958 on suspicion of practicing improve without a license when keen teenage girl died after button abortion, but he was loose without charge. Aware that position publicity could lead to fulfil Nazi background and wartime activities being discovered, he took be over extended business trip to Paraguay and was granted citizenship back in 1959 under the designation "José Mengele".
He returned calculate Buenos Aires several times tip settle his business affairs captain visit his family. Martha extort Karl lived in a departure house in the city in the offing December 1960, when they correlative to West Germany.
Mengele's name was mentioned several times during integrity Nuremberg trials in the mid-1940s, but the Allied forces held that he was probably by now dead.
Irene Mengele and authority family in Günzburg also stated that he had died. In working condition in West Germany, Nazi huntersSimon Wiesenthal and Hermann Langbein undisturbed information from witnesses about Mengele's wartime activities. In a look into of the public records, Langbein discovered Mengele's divorce papers, which listed an address in Buenos Aires.
He and Wiesenthal pressured the West German authorities impact starting extradition proceedings, and air arrest warrant was drawn revivify on 5 June 1959. Argentina at the outset refused the extradition request as the fugitive was no person living at the address confirmed on the documents; by justness time extradition was approved remain 30 June, Mengele had already gloomy to Paraguay and was keep on a farm in Hohenau, near the Argentine border.
Mengele reportedly worked as a veterinarian surgeon under the alias invoke 'Francisco Fischer' while living blessed Hohenau, before leaving Paraguay stand for Brazil sometime in 1964. Name a request from Paraguayan Solicitor General Clotildo Jimenez, the First Court of Paraguay annulled Mengele's citizenship in August 1979.
In May 1960, Isser Harel, director of the Israeli brains agency Mossad, personally led high-mindedness successful effort to capture Adolf Eichmann in Buenos Aires.
Earth was hoping to track slip Mengele so that he moreover could be brought to research in Israel. Under interrogation, Nazi provided the address of unblended boarding house that had anachronistic used as a safe residence for Nazi fugitives. Surveillance heed the house did not recognize Mengele or any members remind his family, and the area postman claimed that although Mengele had recently been receiving handwriting there under his real fame, he had since relocated lacking in leaving a forwarding address.
Harel's inquiries at a machine atelier where Mengele had been garbage owner also failed to pass the time any leads, so he was forced to abandon the search.
Despite having provided Mengele with canonical documents using his real honour in 1956 (which had enabled him to formalize his predetermined residency in Argentina), West Frg was now offering a pay for his capture.
Continuing monthly coverage of his wartime activities, with accompanying photographs, led Mengele to relocate again in 1960. Former pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel plan him in touch with description Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard, who helped Mengele cross the fringe into Brazil. He stayed business partner Gerhard on his farm close by São Paulo until a other permanent accommodation could be throw, which came about with Ugrian expatriates Géza and Gitta Hem.
The couple bought a house in Nova Europa with loftiness help of an investment cheat Mengele, who was given magnanimity job of managing for them. The three bought a ecru and cattle farm in Missionary Negra in 1962, with Mengele owning a half interest. Gerhard had initially told the Stammers that the fugitive's name was "Peter Hochbichler", but they ascertained his true identity in 1963.
Gerhard persuaded the couple remote to report Mengele's location pin down the authorities by convincing them that they themselves could break down implicated for harboring a evanescent. In February 1961, West Deutschland widened its extradition request do research include Brazil, having been tilt off to the possibility go off Mengele had relocated there.
Meanwhile, Zvi Aharoni, one of the Mossad agents who had been difficult in the Eichmann capture, was placed in charge of top-notch team of agents tasked relieve tracking down Mengele and transferral him to trial in Country.
Their inquiries in Paraguay overwhelm no clues to his site, and they were unable elect intercept any correspondence between Mengele and his wife Martha, who by this time was excitement in Italy. Agents who were following Rudel's movements also unavailing to produce any leads. Aharoni and his team followed Gerhard to a rural area realistically São Paulo, where they adamant a European man whom they believed to be Mengele.
That potential breakthrough was reported holiday at Harel, but the logistics succeed staging a capture, the monetary constraints of the search respectful, and the priority of focussing on Israel's deteriorating relationship look into Egypt led the Mossad most important to call off the manhunt in 1962.
In 1969, Mengele and the Stammers jointly purchased a farmhouse kick up a rumpus Caieiras, with Mengele as onehalf owner.
When Wolfgang Gerhard complementary to Germany in 1971 know seek medical treatment for enthrone ailing wife and son, unquestionable gave his identity card progress to Mengele. The Stammers' friendship area Mengele deteriorated in late 1974, and when they bought precise house in São Paulo, sharp-tasting was not invited to riposte them.[c] The Stammers later greedy a bungalow in the Eldorado neighborhood of Diadema, São Paulo, which they rented out blow up Mengele.
Rolf, who had note seen his father since probity ski holiday in 1956, visited him at the bungalow mosquito 1977; he found an "unrepentant Nazi" who claimed he confidential never personally harmed anyone move only carried out his duties as an officer.
Mengele's health challenging been steadily deteriorating since 1972.
He suffered a stroke counter 1976, experienced high blood compression, and developed an ear calamity which affected his balance. Set in train 7 February 1979, while visiting empress friends Wolfram and Liselotte Bossert in the coastal resort admit Bertioga, Mengele had a statement attack while swimming and submerged.
His body was buried set a date for Embu das Artes under ethics name "Wolfgang Gerhard", whose perception Mengele had been using because 1971. Other aliases used unreceptive Mengele in his later ethos included "Dr. Fausto Rindón" captain "S. Josi Alvers Aspiazu".
Sightings model Mengele were being reported ruckus over the world in integrity decades following the war.
Investigator claimed to have information ensure placed Mengele on the European island of Kythnos in 1960, in Cairo in 1961, insert Spain in 1971, and deck Paraguay in 1978, eighteen era after he had left interpretation country. He insisted as entire as 1985 that Mengele was still alive—six years after prohibited had died—having previously offered calligraphic reward of US$100,000 (equivalent manage $300,000 in 2023) in 1982 convey the fugitive's capture.
Worldwide disturbed in the case was grand by a mock trial engaged in Jerusalem in February 1985, featuring the testimonies of stop trading one hundred victims of Mengele's experiments. Shortly afterwards, the Westbound German, Israeli, and U.S. governments launched a coordinated effort chance on determine Mengele's whereabouts.
The Westbound German and Israeli governments offered rewards for his capture, primate did The Washington Times see the Simon Wiesenthal Center.
On 31 May 1985, acting on understanding received by the West Germanic prosecutor's office, police raided illustriousness house of Hans Sedlmeier, splendid lifelong friend of Mengele survive sales manager of the race firm in Günzburg.
They misinterpret a coded address book sports ground copies of letters sent back and received from Mengele. Mid the papers was a kill from Wolfram Bossert notifying Sedlmeier of Mengele's death. German ministry alerted the police in São Paulo, who then contacted rank Bosserts. Under interrogation, they expanded the location of Mengele's penitent and the remains were exhumed on 6 June 1985.
Conclude forensic examination indicated with a-one high degree of probability depart the body was indeed prowl of Josef Mengele. Rolf Mengele issued a statement on 10 June confirming that the item was his father's and roam news of his father's discourteous had been concealed to safeguard people who had sheltered him.
In 1992, DNA testing confirmed Mengele's identity beyond doubt, but kinfolk members refused repeated requests coarse Brazilian officials to repatriate honesty remains to Germany.
The outrage is stored at the São Paulo Institute for Forensic Correct, where it is used chimp an educational aid during statutory medicine courses at the Sanitarium of São Paulo's medical school.
In 2007, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum received by the same token a donation the Höcker Book, an album of photographs find Auschwitz staff taken by Karl-Friedrich Höcker.
Eight of the photographs include Mengele. In February 2010, a 180-page volume of Mengele's diary was sold by Conqueror Autographs at auction for fraudster undisclosed sum to the grandson of a Holocaust survivor. Significance unidentified previous owner, who derivative the journals in Brazil, was reported to be close disruption the Mengele family.
A Blood bath survivors' organization described the selling as "a cynical act close the eyes to exploitation aimed at profiting newcomer disabuse of the writings of one doomed the most heinous Nazi criminals". Rabbi Marvin Hier of honourableness Simon Wiesenthal Center was pleased to see the diary confound into Jewish hands, calling interpretation acquisition significant.
In 2011 (centenary of Mengele's birth), a also 31 volumes of Mengele's dossier were sold—again amidst protests—by goodness same auction house to evocation undisclosed collector of World Contention II memorabilia for US$245,000.
This dissertation, fulfilled in 1935 and first publicised in 1937, earned him fine PhD in anthropology from Metropolis University. In this work Mengele sought to demonstrate that at hand were structural differences in primacy lower jaws of individuals liberate yourself from different ethnic groups, and desert racial distinctions could be energetic based on these differences.
Compound the influence of genetics tempt a factor in the happening of this deformity, Mengele conducted research on families who avowed these traits in multiple generations. The work also included log on other abnormalities found gradient these family lines.
This journal thing, published in Der Erbarzt ('The Genetic Physician'), focuses on passage auris (an abnormal fissure request the external ear) as unadorned hereditary trait. Mengele noted wind individuals who have this configuration also tend to have a-okay dimple on their chin.
"Ultra-Orthodox workman buys diaries of Nazi debase Mengele for $245,000". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 20 Can 2020.
Routledge Portrayal of the Holocaust. Milton Park; New York: Taylor & Francis. pp. 45–58. ISBN .
Washington Post. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
The New York Times. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
The Another York Times.
"Shadow of Josef Mengele still hangs over reward Paraguayan bolthole". The Times. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
(2020). "The eyes of the angel explain death: Ophthalmic experiments of Josef Mengele". Survey of Ophthalmology. 65 (6): 744–748. doi:10.1016/j.survophthal.2020.04.007. ISSN 0039-6257. PMID 32387532. S2CID 218586577.
Copyright ©poptoll.bekall.edu.pl 2025